Architecture #3: Gates, Domes, and Eternal Tears

The Muslim conquest of Iran and Central Asia (633–751) fundamentally transformed the region's social order. The fall of the Sassanid Empire and the gradual conversion of the population led to the decline of Zoroastrianism, except in isolated pockets. Fire temples were largely abandoned or destroyed, and the Towers of Silence (dakhma) fell quiet. Today, the Zoroastrian community numbers only a few tens of thousands, concentrated in cities like Yazd and Kerman.

In the Iranian East, Buddhism also faded, having already endured a long period of decline. However, the region of Bactria—stretching from the Hindu Kush to the Amu Darya (Oxus) river, and now part of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan—remained a flourishing Buddhist center until the late eighth or even ninth century. We know this from the chronicles of the 7th-century Chinese monk Xuanzang, who reported that the city of Ta-mi (Termez, Uzbekistan) housed a dozen monasteries and roughly a thousand monks. A century later, the Korean monk Hyecho passed through the same area and noted that "the king, the nobles, and the people all worship the Three Jewels."

The decline of these faiths was rarely the result of direct assaults on their institutions; rather, it followed the gradual conversion of the populace. For Buddhism, the withdrawal of financial support was a death sentence for monasteries and temples that relied entirely on the patronage of the faithful.

Architecturally, however, the emerging Islamic culture of Central Asia was a direct heir to the civilizations that preceded it. It forged building traditions that married Muslim religious requirements with architectural practices that had existed in the region for generations.

The primary Islamic structures that evolved during this period were the mosque, the madrasa, the tomb, and the khanqah—a residence for Sufis and ascetics.

While Muslim tradition traces the mosque's design to the Prophet Muhammad’s house in Medina, mosque architecture in the Iranian sphere was heavily influenced by the apadāna, the royal Iranian hypostyle hall. This likely stemmed from the Arabs' lack of experience in monumental construction and their reliance on expert Iranian builders who utilized the traditions they knew. Consequently, the Iranian hypostyle hall became a primary model for monumental mosques in the Muslim East and beyond, though Byzantine and Egyptian influences also played their part.

Remains of the apadāna in Persepolis, from the Achaemenid dynasty.

Artistic reconstruction of the apadāna in Persepolis.

The hypostyle hall in the Great Mosque of Córdoba. A gem of Moorish architecture in Muslim Spain, showing Iranian and Hellenistic influences.

Two other elements that transitioned from pre-Islamic Iranian architecture into Muslim construction are the dome and the iwan.

The dome, or gonbad, served in Iranian architecture as a symbol of royal power. It was later integrated into mosques and tombs as a representation of the "celestial dome," a reminder of man’s place within the universe. The term even traveled to China as gǒngběi, where it refers to the shrines of prominent Sufi teachers.

A gonbad/gongbei in the city of Linxia, China.

Another hallmark of Iranian architecture with pre-Islamic roots is the iwan (eyvān)—a monumental gateway framing a building's openings. A staple of Sassanid and Parthian construction, the iwan became a defining feature of Islamic architecture, visible today from the madrasas of Cairo and the Temple Mount to the Taj Mahal.

Gonbad-e Jabaliyeh, a Sassanid structure from the 2nd century CE with a dome and iwan gates. Kerman, Iran.

The mausoleum of the Mongol Ilkhan Oljaytu (d. 1316), Soltaniyeh, Iran. A continuation of pre-Islamic elements.

The origins of the Islamic madrasa, both as an institution and an architectural form, remain a subject of debate. Although the oldest active madrasas are found in Cairo and Fez, the form appears to have first developed in the eastern Iranian world, coinciding with the final decline of Buddhist learning in the region.

Iran possesses an ancient administrative tradition, born of a long imperial history that required efficient management. This necessity gave rise to families specializing in the art of administration—a demanding and often thankless profession. Loyal officials frequently lost their posts, or their heads, to the whims of a new sovereign. The Juvayni family is a case in point: Ata-Malik Juvayni (d. 1283) wrote the seminal "History of the World Conqueror," while his brother, Shams al-Din, served as Grand Vizier until he was beheaded by the Ilkhan Arghun in 1285. Fame, it seems, is a double-edged sword.

Four centuries earlier, the Barmakid family rose to similar prominence as professional administrators, serving even the great Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid (d. 809).

The Barmakids hailed from Balkh, in modern-day Afghanistan, which was the most important Buddhist center in the pre-Islamic Iranian world. They were the hereditary chief priests of the Nava Vihara ("New Monastery"); indeed, "Barmakid" is an Arabic rendering of the Sanskrit Pramukha, meaning leader. The family converted to Islam during the Arab invasion and later supported the Abbasid Revolt, securing a central role in the new administration. Highly cultured, they were patrons of the arts and sciences who translated Sanskrit texts into Arabic and Persian, integrating Indian medical and philosophical knowledge into Islamic thought. Their end was tragic: court intrigue and their staggering wealth prompted Harun al-Rashid to seize their property and execute or imprison them, destroying one of the Muslim world’s most learned dynasties.

Modern scholarship now recognizes the influence of Buddhist logic and the Sarvāstivāda learning tradition on Islamic scholarship. Given the geographical overlap and the long period of coexistence between the rise of Islam and the decline of Buddhism in Central Asia, it is highly probable that Buddhist centers of learning were absorbed into the Islamic scholarly tradition.

Architecturally, the vihara—a monastery with a central courtyard surrounded by meditation cells—likely served as the blueprint for the Islamic madrasa. While this layout is common to many religious buildings from China to the West, the chronology and archaeological evidence strongly suggest an Iranian-Eastern origin for this specific evolution.

Remains of the Fayaz Tepe monastery, Uzbekistan.

Schematic of an Islamic madrasa.

The Islamic tomb synthesizes these elements into an enclosed complex centered on the grave of a ruler or Sufi leader. These structures often feature iwan gates adorned with glazed tiles and muqarnas (stalactite) vaulting, topped by a dome. Occasionally, a khanqah was added to provide lodging and seclusion for Sufi dervishes.

This architectural style reached its zenith during the Timurid period. The dynasty’s founder, Timur (Tamerlane), was a Turco-Mongol commander of notorious cruelty whose empire stretched from Anatolia to China. While Timur had little interest in building a functional administration—preferring to spend his time razing cities—his artistic taste was refined. He forcibly gathered the finest craftsmen from across his conquered territories to build his legacy.

An art-loving mass murderer. He was not a vegetarian. Amir Timur.

The Timurid Empire.

Under Timur, Samarkand became a global symbol of wealth and splendor. His successors were more refined than he, serving as great patrons of the arts and sciences, though their political power steadily waned. They were eventually ousted by Uzbek tribes who, despite eliminating the last of the Timurids, claimed Timur as their national founding father after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, founder of the Yasawi Sufi order. Turkestan, Kazakhstan. A 14th-century Timurid structure.

The peak of Iranian architecture: Iwan and muqarnas stalactites. A Timurid structure.

The Registan complex, Samarkand.

Babur, a scion of the Timurid house, fled his homeland to invade India and found the Mughal dynasty. His descendant, Shah Jahan, would eventually build what has been called "a tear on the face of eternity": the Taj Mahal.

The Taj is a direct descendant of Iranian architecture, evident in its iwans, dome, and symbolism. Local Indian elements were blended in, such as the onion-shaped dome and the umbrella-like chhatris.

The layout of the Taj Mahal is based on the Hasht-Bihisht ("Eight Paradises"), a Persian design that divides the building into eight rooms to represent the eight levels of heaven.

The "Eight Paradises" scheme.

The surrounding garden follows the Iranian chahār bāgh ("Fourfold Garden") model—a symmetrical, walled enclosure divided by water channels. This concept dates back to the Achaemenid period (539–331 BCE). The garden symbolizes paradise, a sanctuary of water and greenery designed to provide relief from the harsh climates of Mesopotamia and Iran.

Remains of the garden of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire. The earliest example of an Iranian Fourfold Garden. Pasargadae, Fars Province, Iran.

Chahar Bagh.

The Fourfold Garden of the Taj Mahal.

Islamic architecture in Central Asia and Iran did not emerge from a vacuum. It is a direct continuation of the patterns that preceded the Arab conquest. By blending Iranian, Indo-Buddhist, and Hellenistic elements, it created a style perfectly suited to the needs of the faith, resulting in some of the most sublime creations in human history.