To the Valley of Unity: The Sufi Path

Sufism (Arabic: Tasawwuf) is often regarded as a third branch or a parallel current to the two main streams of Islam, Sunni and Shia. Its expressions have drifted in and out of the boundaries of orthodoxy, shifting according to the dictates of time and place.

Sufis trace their lineage to the Prophet Muhammad’s most devout companions, whose awe of the Creator led them to renounce worldly comforts for garments of coarse wool (Arabic: suf). Another tradition links the name to the stone bench (suffa) in the Prophet’s house, where the most steadfast in faith would gather.

Historical research sometimes frames Sufism as a tapestry of Gnostic and Neo-Platonic ideas woven into the monotheistic core of Islam—the result of early contact between Islamic culture and the local doctrines of conquered civilizations. Its conceptual heart is the belief that the world is a material reflection of the Divine essence, yet simultaneously separate from it. Through Gnostic knowledge—or in an Islamic context, the Sufi perfected in virtue—one can bridge these worlds to witness the mysteries of the Divine and existence itself.

In the eastern reaches of the Iranian world, Sufis also absorbed Zoroastrian, Buddhist, and Shamanic influences. These introduced ecstatic and meditative elements into the tradition, manifesting in what is known as the "Khorasani" current (named for the Central Asian region) or "Drunken Sufism." This characterizes many Sufi groups originating in the Turco-Iranian world, whose ecstatic tendencies stand in contrast to the western or "Baghdadi" current, which was more likely influenced by Judeo-Christian and Neo-Platonic traditions.

Over generations, the Sufi movement crystallized into formal organizations, drawing their laws and ethics from lineages of spiritual masters. These groups concentrated in regulated centers sustained by private businesses, religious endowments (waqf), or the support of wealthy patrons. These orders, known as Tariqa ("path"; plural: Turuq), and the spiritual centers they established (Zawiya, Khanqah, Qalandarhana), served as vital institutions in the urban fabric of the Muslim world, providing both spiritual and material support.

Daily life within these orders varied, but many offered a space for contemplation, fellowship, spiritual study, and service under a charismatic teacher (Pir). At times, they provided purely material benefits through charity and offerings, rooted in the order's status and its ties to the community—urbanites, villagers, and nomads alike.

While the Sufi path is incredibly diverse, one can generally describe its progress as an ascent through a ladder of spiritual stations (maqamat). In this process, the ego is eroded and the distinctions between the believer and the object of belief are dissolved, until one achieves a complete, intuitive knowledge of the Absolute and attains fana—spiritual annihilation and union with God, who is Reality itself.

The central ritual in many orders is the dhikr, a gathering for prayer, song, dance, or music—or a combination thereof—during which the name of God and His attributes are invoked with increasing intensity and rhythm, sometimes leading to true ecstatic arousal. Different orders developed distinct traditions; the most famous in the West is the Turkish Mevlevi order, founded by the disciples of the great Persian poet Jalal ad-Din Rumi. Over time, Sufism developed a unique lexicon of allegorical and esoteric meanings, characterized by vivid imagery and metaphors for a path that some perceived as preceding all law and creed:

"The seed of Sufism was sown in the days of Adam, sprouted in the days of Noah, budded in the time of Abraham, flowered in the time of Moses, gave grapes in the time of Jesus, and became fine wine in the time of the Prophet Muhammad."

In the Persian-speaking world, the Sufi lexicon became so integrated into poetry that it is often difficult to distinguish between the two—a fact that only contributes to the great beauty of Persian verse. In their writing, Sufi men of letters express a longing for unity and an aversion to artificial boundaries, self-righteousness, and the division of the world into heresy and piety. "The lover and the beloved, the idol and the worshiper—which of them is full of deceit? Darkness rules in the Kaaba and in the Temple; come to the Valley of Unity, where one color shall reign. Think deeply: who is the lover, and who is the beloved? Who is the flower, and who is the thorn?"

(Sarmad)

"A cup of wine in one hand, the Quran in the other; our deeds are righteous, and then not. At the same time, in this imperfect world, we are neither infidels nor Muslims."

(Khayyam)

"I lost Joseph in the land of Canaan; I found Joseph, and Canaan vanished. One as innocent as you will not find Layla. What is this wound for which there is no cure? In the market of love, souls are sold; I sell my soul but find no buyer. They announce 'Yunus is dead' and no one answers; it is the body that dies, the lovers live."

(Yunus Emre)

In Central Asia, a wide spectrum of practices and organizational forms existed throughout Sufi history. Two contrasting examples are the Qalandariyya and Naqshbandiyya orders. The origins of the Qalandariyya are shrouded in mystery, but its birth seems linked to the Malamatiyya, a movement that began around the ninth century in Nishapur, Khorasan, representing one of the earliest stages of Islamic mysticism.

In its early stages, its members were not even considered Sufis by their contemporaries—unlike the mystics of Baghdad—but rather a separate group. This movement, and the Qalandariyya influenced by it, represents the Central Asian mystical tradition, which absorbed pre-Islamic and extra-Islamic traditions, including Shamanism and Buddhism, all present in the cultural blend created by Mongol rule.

The spiritual path of the Malamatiyya centered on the idea that the lower soul, the nafs (the ego), might actually be strengthened by the self-esteem and social status that comes with a mystical path. They believed only attacking the nafs through constant blame and reproach (malama) could wear down an ego as hard as stone.

The Qalandariyya, which flourished in Central Asia around the eleventh century, thrived outside the institutional learning centers of Iranian and Middle Eastern cities. It tended toward an unorthodox, decentralized structure, even accepting runaway slaves and outcasts who wandered the frontiers of the Muslim world. Their anti-orthodox approach included the use of music, dance, and wine for spiritual elevation—practices that were anathema to the establishment and to orders like the Naqshbandiyya, which opposed the "drunken" Sufism of the Qalandars.

The Naqshbandiyya, tracing its origins to the Bukhara cleric Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (d. 1389), is a primary example of Sufi integration into mainstream Islam. An essentially urban order, it emphasizes the active integration of its followers into the political and religious life of their communities, requiring full adherence to Islamic law as part of the spiritual process.

Since the 15th century, the order has established itself in key positions across the Middle East, Central Asia, and India, believing that the faithful must involve themselves in governance to influence the course of humanity. This approach sometimes led to members attempting to control political agendas or even becoming rulers themselves. Furthermore, the Naqshbandiyya’s political agenda led to direct involvement in rebellions against foreign powers, such as the Caucasian wars against Tsarist Russia and struggles in Xinjiang and Gansu. There, they also clashed with other Sufi orders they viewed as heretical. Ritually, the Naqshbandiyya advocates for a "khafi" (silent) dhikr to avoid the external ecstasy associated with other groups. However, these definitions are mostly for the sake of discussion; in practice, boundaries were fluid. Orders frequently borrowed customs from one another. For example, important Naqshbandi teachers in East Turkestan were formerly wandering Qalandars; upon settling, they borrowed practices like the ritual gathering of alms, ceremonial meals for the poor, or even the "jahri" dhikr sung aloud.

Following the Soviet conquest, Sufism became a source of concern for authorities who viewed it as a subversive element. The Soviet period saw campaigns of repression, the closure of mosques, and the establishment of a state-controlled Islamic institution. However, due to the extra-institutional nature of the Sufi current—which the Soviets termed "Parallel Islam"—the orders survived. Today, those associated with the Naqshbandi, Qadri, Kubrawi, and Yasawi orders remain active across the Fergana Valley and Central Asia. Sufi worship often persists at a folk level, including the veneration of saints at gravesites known as mazars—acts performed for health, fertility, or success. These traditions reflect pre-Islamic customs that have long endured. Among the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, a fusion persists between Sufi tradition and ancient shamanic practices. Sometimes women take on the role of the shaman, mediating between worlds and healing the sick in a tradition that blends Islam with Tengrism (the Turco-Mongol sky-god cult). It is a space between unity and multiplicity, between the Kaaba and the idol—a reminder of the multi-layered history of Central Asia and the many faces of Sufism itself.

"I am a seventy-year-old Turkmen whose hair has turned white in the service of idols. I came from the desert bearing the name of Tengri; only now am I learning to pronounce the name of Allah, only now do I bear witness to the faith."

(Bastami)

In the images: Qalandar Sufis gathering, praying, and begging for alms. And Sheikh Yaqub al-Bukhari, leader of the Naqshbandiyya in Jerusalem, 1927 (they are still there, by the way).